Chapter 382: Exploring Sindh (Part 1)

Kanauj also belonged to the countries of Tocharistan. Unlike countries such as the Yuezhi, it was not conquered by the Arabs. The towering Hindu Kush Mountains blocked the Arabs’ advance eastward. Kanauj was a traditional agricultural country. In its vast valleys, fertile land and abundant water resources enabled it to produce plenty of grain and fruits, sustaining its large population.

Kanauj favored ties with the Tang Dynasty. Over the decades, its king had sent envoys to the Tang court several times, receiving titles from the Tang imperial court, including that of “Protector of Tocharistan.” It was also a sacred Buddhist site, with towering bodhi trees and magnificent temples everywhere. Monks, farmers, and merchants made it a prosperous and peaceful country.

In late August, Li Qing’an led an expeditionary force of 18,000 soldiers from the Tang Dynasty, along with over 2,000 troops from the Huimi Kingdom, to Kanauj’s capital, Bulashabula. King Shiligaro of Kanauj went out ten miles to greet them, accompanied by his queen and dozens of officials.

The Tang army slowly came to a halt. Bai Jia stepped forward quickly and led a group of people to kneel in front of Li Qing’an’s horse. Nervous, he said, “Welcome, Great General, to our humble country. We are willing to provide every convenience for your troops.”

Further south from here lay Sindh, the destination of this Tang expedition. Kanauj would serve as a base for the Tang forces as they advanced south. Its abundant grain supplies could meet the army’s needs. Kanauj was crucial for Li Qing’an’s southern campaign. The king’s respectful attitude and willingness to fully support the Tang army pleased Li Qing’an greatly. He dismounted, helped Bai Jia up, and said with a smile, “Thank you, Your Majesty, for your support of the Tang army. This southern campaign aims to drive the Arab forces out of Sindh and Punjab, ensuring that Kanauj remains free from their influence. I hope this campaign will also benefit Kanauj, and I hope you will do your part as well.”

The Prince of Secrecy translated Li Qing’an’s message to Shiligaro, doing so very accurately so that Shiligaro could understand the meaning behind Li Qing’an’s words: he wanted the Kentauras to send troops as well to assist the Tang army in attacking Sindh. However, the Kentauras were not part of the Kingdom of Secrecy, which was located in mountainous areas; sending troops was merely out of courtesy. If the Kentauras assisted the Tang army, it would mean openly confronting the Arabs. If the Tang army withdrew and the Arabs returned to Sindh, the Kentauras would be in danger. Shiligaro was very conflicted; he didn’t want to send troops but was willing to provide money and food, giving everything his country had. Yet he couldn’t state this outright, as doing so clearly might arouse suspicion in the Tang army.

“General, the Kentauras will do everything they can to support the Tang army with food and livestock.”

Although Shiligaro spoke respectfully, his evasive attitude annoyed Li Qing’an. Without revealing his displeasure, Li Qing’an simply said, “Let’s discuss this another time.”

He ignored Shiligaro further and ordered, “The army shall camp here and rest for two days.”

The Tang cavalry dismounted and unloaded their supplies, and soon tents appeared across the open fields by the Sindh River. Shiligaro was uneasy. Li Qing’an no longer paid attention to him. He didn’t know whether to return to the city or stay, and more importantly, they had already prepared a campsite for the Tang army, yet the Tang army ignored him entirely and chose its own location. Their camp happened to block the road from the Kentauras to Kabul, leaving travelers with no way through. Shiligaro was both anxious and regretful, not knowing how to explain himself to Li Qing’an.

Shiligaro’s wife, children, and subjects had all returned to the city. He wandered back and forth outside the Tang army’s camp like a man without a home. He wanted to talk to Li Qing’an again. It was understandable—Thopar people were like that. In modern terms, they were typical pragmatists and opportunists who sided with the stronger party. Now the Tang Dynasty also wanted to expand its influence over Thopar. With the outcome still uncertain, how could he expect them to fully support the Tang Dynasty? What if the Arabs won?

At that moment, a Tang soldier came out of the camp, bowed, and said, “Your Majesty, our general invites you inside.”

Shiligaro was overjoyed. Li Qing’an had finally given him another chance. He quickly followed the soldier into the camp.

In the main camp, a scout who had just returned from Sindh brought news of He Yansi. He Yansi had located Sindh’s largest grain storage complexes, which contained four million dan of grain and twenty million dirhams in silver collected by the Arabs from Sindh and Punjab. These were now under the guard of 30,000 local Sindh troops, along with 2,000 Arab soldiers. Meanwhile, Sindh’s governor, Ben Ibrahim, was leading the main Arab forces to suppress rebellions among the Rajputs in Punjab.

What interested Li Qingan was that He Yansi had now become the supervisor of one of these grain stores and held the position of brigade commander in the Sindh army, with a thousand men under his command. This was because he had managed to win the trust of a Sindh officer whose uncle was a high-ranking general in the Sindh army.

“General, Commander He is very worried that riots might break out in Sindh, causing losses to the grain supplies. He says those soldiers are unreliable; if chaos ensues, they will lead the plundering of money and grain. He implores the general to send troops to Sindh as soon as possible.”

Li Qingan closed He Yansi’s report and smiled. “General He is quite lucky in his career! Here, he’s just a minor brigade commander, but in Sindh, within just a few days, he’s already risen to the position of brigade commander—equivalent to a high-ranking general in my Tang Dynasty. It seems I’ve failed to recognize his talents.”

The messenger was sweating profusely after hearing Li Qingan’s joking remarks. He quickly explained for He Yansi: “The Sindh army is in complete disarray, with no rules or military discipline. Everything depends on lineage and connections. As long as someone is a Rajput, even if they’re a new recruit, they can command those experienced lower-class veterans. General He doesn’t even speak their language, yet he still got promoted!”

Li Qingan understood what he meant—referring to the caste system in India. He smiled and asked, “Are you saying you belong to the upper caste?”

“Yes! They consider us Kushans, belonging to the Kshatriya caste. That’s why their general generously gave General He the position of brigade commander.”

Li Qingan nodded. “I see. You may go and rest for now. I still need you to act as a guide. After resting for a couple more days, the army will head south to Sindh.”

The messenger saluted and left. At that moment, Li Qingan’s personal guard brought in King Shiligaro of Kandahar. Shiligaro knelt down and pleaded with Li Qingan, “I deserve death for disobeying the general’s orders. I’ve come to atone for my sins!”

The interpreter whispered something nearby, and Li Qingan’s expression turned stern. “Do you realize you’re guilty?”

“I do! That’s why I’ve come to apologize.”

Li Qing’an stared at him for a long time before slowly saying, “As the ruler of Anxi, I am willing to endure hardships and lead the imperial army southward to free you from the oppression of the Arabs. Perhaps you think since Kandahar has not been occupied by the Arabs, it doesn’t matter, but if it weren’t for the Tang army holding back the Arabs in Khwarazm, do you think you would still be the king of Kandahar?”
“I know that without the imperial army stopping the Arabs from expanding eastward, Kandahar would have already been incorporated into Sindh.”
“You know that too, yet you cherish your own life and refuse to send troops to assist the imperial army—worse even than a small state like Humaid. Your Majesty, you really disappoint me! If it weren’t for my desire to give you another chance, you would no longer be the king of Kandahar.”
Li Qing’an’s blunt threat made Shiligaro sweat profusely. He kowtowed repeatedly, not daring to say a word more. In Anxi, it was better to show disrespect to the Tang emperor than to offend the Anxi governor even slightly; the governor could kill these kings as easily as killing a chicken.
“Very well! Out of respect for your acknowledgment of your mistake, I’ll spare you this time.”
Li Qing’an’s expression softened slightly, and he ordered, “For this attack on Sindh, I want Kandahar to contribute all its resources—both money and troops. How much are you willing to provide?”
This time, Shiligaro dared not hide anything. After calculating in his mind, he said, “Our treasury still has one million bushels of grain, which can be given entirely to the Tang army. There are also six thousand pounds of gold, which I am willing to offer as military funds. As for troops, Kandahar can provide five thousand elephant troops and twenty thousand infantry to fight alongside the Tang army.”
Mention of elephant troops immediately reminded Li Qing’an, who quickly asked, “How many artificially raised elephants are there in Sindh and Punjab?”
“I estimate tens of thousands! Many villages along the Indus River almost all raise elephants.”
Thinking of his own losses, Shiligaro was heartbroken and spoke without much energy in response to Li Qing’an. Understanding his feelings, Li Qing’an smiled at him and said, “Since Your Majesty is willing to assist the imperial army, it shows your loyalty to the Tang dynasty. I won’t treat you unfairly. After conquering Sindh and Punjab, I will merge them with Kandahar to form a kingdom stretching thousands of miles, with you as its first king.”
Shiligaro’s eyes widened in shock. He had never dreamed that his Kandahar could conquer Sindh and Punjab, yet now he was hearing it for real—Li Qing’an intended to give it to him. He slapped his forehead and asked softly, “The great general isn’t lying to me, is he?”

Hearing the translation, Li Qing’an’s expression darkened, and he said unhappily, “I am the Prince of Zhao of the Tang Dynasty, the Prime Minister of the Council of State, and a high-ranking military governor of Anxi. How could I possibly deceive you?”
Shiligaro truly believed him now. Overjoyed, he kowtowed repeatedly and said, “I am willing to serve the great general wholeheartedly.”
“Of course. To prevent the Arabs from making a comeback, the Tang army will station troops in Sindh to help you train your forces and resist their invasions. I need to let you know this first.”
Shiligaro regained some sense of reason. He understood Li Qing’an’s meaning—Sindh and Punjab still belonged to the Tang Dynasty, though he was acting as Li Qing’an’s representative. Still, he was overjoyed. Whatever the Tang Dynasty wanted, they could have; what they didn’t want remained theirs.
“Great general, I’ll go back right away to muster my troops!”
“Go! The army will set out on time at noon the day after tomorrow.”
……
The Indus River, as it is known today, flowed through what is now Pakistan. Thirteen hundred years ago, the Indus Valley was a world-famous granary. With fertile land, abundant sunlight and water, and a large population, it became an important food source for the Arabs. Before the Arabs expanded eastward, the entire region of North India was ruled by the Rajputs. The Rajputs were a new ethnic group formed from the fusion of foreign peoples such as the Kushans, Huns, Gujars, and Sogdians from the Tarim Basin, along with the local inhabitants. They held dominion in North India and belonged to the Kshatriya caste, ruling over tens of millions of local people.
The Rajputs did not form a unified kingdom but were divided into thirty-six small states that constantly fought among themselves.
After the Arabs expanded eastward, Sindh and Punjab were the first to be conquered. Some Rajputs were forced to convert to Islam. The Arabs promised them that if they converted, they would enjoy an annual pension from the empire, just like Muslims in Damascus, and no longer have to pay taxes. However, due to repeated defeats at the hands of the Tang Dynasty, coupled with the Tang Dynasty beginning direct trade with Byzantium, Arab tax revenues plummeted. This forced the Arabs to revoke their promises. Muslims in Sindh still had to pay taxes, while the rest of the population had to pay double to compensate for the Arab empire’s financial losses.

The Abbasids’ heavy taxation policy dealt a severe blow to their rule in Sindh and Punjab. The Rajputs were extremely dissatisfied, and under the instigation of some nobles and large landowners, uprisings broke out in many areas, with the most intense one occurring in the city of Adbal. The former king was reinstated and openly resisted the Abbasids.

Ibrahim, the governor of Sindh, was furious. He led 8,000 Abbasid troops and 50,000 Sindhian auxiliary troops to suppress the uprising in Adbal. To ensure that Sindh’s granaries were not damaged, Ibrahim also mobilized 30,000 more Sindhian auxiliary troops from various regions to protect them, under the command of his deputy, Ibn Rajid.

These 30,000 troops came from different parts of Sindh and formed various factions. Ten thousand of them, from the city of Amidiro in northern Sindh, were tasked with guarding the eastern grain supplies. He Yan Si served as the commander of one of these units.

The position of commander was part of the Abbasid military system, adopted by Marwan II, the last caliph of the Umayyad dynasty, after emulating the Roman military system. In Arabic, it was called “qurduс.” A legion consisted of ten such units, each further divided into squadrons and platoons. He Yan Si became the commander of one of these units, in charge of 1,000 soldiers.

It’s quite astonishing that He Yan Si formed a close friendship with Summaro using merely a piece of silk and a porcelain cup. Summaro had an uncle named Yadudro who was a legion commander. When one of the commanders fell seriously ill with dysentery and died on the way, Yadudro asked his nephew Summaro to take over his position. Summaro then recommended He Yan Si as his deputy. Based on his knowledge of genealogy, the learned Yadudro concluded that He Yan Si was of Macedonian descent and had some kind of familial relationship with his ancestors. Because of this strange familial link, Yadudro removed his nephew from the position and appointed He Yan Si instead.

Language barriers weren’t a problem—what mattered was preventing soldiers from stealing grain without permission.

He Yan Si was a very intelligent young man. Within half a month of spending time with Summaro, he learned enough Sindhian to have simple conversations.

One morning, He Yan Si was summoned to attend a meeting in the legion commander’s tent. It was early September, yet the weather in Sindh remained unbearably hot. Dozens of generals gathered in the tent, which was filled with a foul smell. He Yan Si was used to this. He went over and sat next to Summaro, asking with a smile, “What’s going on?”

Summaro was a man without great ambitions; he didn’t care that He Yanshi had taken his part-time job. With a serious expression, he said, “News has come from the north—the Khatari actually dared to invade Sindh in force. The army commander is anxious and has called a meeting to discuss a strategy.”

He Yanshi quickly realized what was going on. It wasn’t a Khatari invasion at all; it was the Tang army arriving. He was inwardly excited but showed no outward signs. Glancing around, he asked, “Where is the army commander? Why isn’t he here?”

“The army commander also went to the meeting and told us to wait here.”

What annoyed He Yanshi the most was how slow things moved in Sindh. Even the simplest tasks took a long time to complete. Meetings were especially lengthy, with most of the time spent waiting. This time, he would have to wait at least half a day.

He Yanshi had miscalculated. He waited from morning till evening, having two meals inside the tent and taking a nap. He was awakened in a daze when the army commander returned from the meeting.

Adudro’s family had ruled the city of Amidiro in the north for generations. He himself was an old soldier in his fifties, always involved in schemes for personal gain. When there was profit, he was never absent; when there were troubles, he disappeared. He had a thick beard and shrewd little eyes, which were often hidden by his beard, giving him an inscrutable appearance.

“The meeting lasted a bit longer today. Everyone refused to give in. They preferred to stay and guard the warehouses rather than fight against those lowly Khatari, as it would dishonor our status as nobles.”

In fact, the Khatari were also Rajputs, and in terms of bloodline, they were even purer than them. They just made excuses to avoid fighting.

“And what was the result?” Summaro asked loudly. He was planning to marry another wife and didn’t have time for war.

“The result is that no one wanted to go. The Arabs got angry and ordered a draw.”

“What did you draw?” Everyone sat up straight, eagerly interested in their army commander’s luck.

Adudro smiled proudly. “Do you think I would draw the unlucky one? We’ll stay here, and others will go fight.”

Cheers erupted in the tent. If the others left, it meant the food and wealth in the warehouse would belong to them.

He Yanshi, however, was secretly frustrated. If they fought the Tang army, they could return to their own forces. Now things were complicated. As everyone went back to sleep, Adudro called out to him, “Summaro, Yanshi, you two stay. I have something to say to you.”

After everyone had left, Adudro whispered to the two of them, “From what I’ve heard, things aren’t that simple. It might not be the Khotan people attacking, but rather the Tang Dynasty’s army.”
“The Tang people!”
Sumaro’s eyes widened as he said anxiously, “Will they bring a lot of silk and porcelain? Won’t that make them worthless?”
Worried that the silk and porcelain in his possession might lose value, Adudro glared at him fiercely and scolded, “Idiot! The Tang army won’t bring any silk or porcelain. They’ll just kill us all.”
“What does the legion commander think we should do?” He Yansi asked.
“I think we should take the 20 million dinar silver coins from the warehouse and return to Amidiro City to become local lords,” Adudro said with a sinister smile.